Bilingual Education and Deaf Learners: Linguistic Empowerment and Cognitive Development in Inclusive Contexts
Francesco Tafuri, Generoso Romano
Abstract
Bilingual education for deaf children is increasingly recognized as a transformative approach that supports not only language development but also identity formation, cognitive growth, and social inclusion. This paper explores inclusive practices within bilingual educational models, emphasizing the need for systemic reform, teacher preparation, and community collaboration. By situating deaf learners within linguistically and culturally responsive frameworks, inclusive bilingual education fosters academic success and psychological well-being. The paper highlights the importance of integrating sign language and spoken/written language in a balanced manner, ensuring that educational environments are accessible, equitable, and affirming of deaf identity. Additionally, it underscores the urgency of research-informed policy development, technological investment, and stakeholder engagement to support sustainable and inclusive practices. The findings suggest that a multidimensional approach, rooted in equity and linguistic human rights, is essential for realizing the full potential of bilingual education for deaf children.
Keywords
Bilingualism
Deaf Education
Inclusion
Sign Language
Cognitive Development
References
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second-language learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28(3), 537β549.
Mayberry, R. I., & Kluender, R. (2017). Rethinking the critical period for language: New
insights into an old question from American Sign Language. Bilingualism: Language
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Mayer, C., & Akamatsu, C. T. (2003). Bilingualism and literacy. In M. Marschark & P. E.
Spencer (Eds.), Oxford handbook of deaf studies, language, and education (Vol. 1, pp.
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Mayer, C., & Leigh, G. (2010). The changing context for sign bilingual education programs:
Issues in language and the development of literacy. International Journal of Bilingual
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Padden, C., & Humphries, T. (2005). Inside Deaf Culture. Harvard University Press.
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Bilingual signed and spoken language acquisition from birth: Implications for the
mechanisms underlying early bilingual language acquisition. Journal of Child
Language, 28(2), 453β496.
Swanwick, R. (2010). Policy and practice in sign bilingual education: Development,
challenges, and directions. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 13(2), 147β158.
Swanwick, R. (2016). Scaffolding learning through classroom talk: The role of bilingual
discourse in deaf education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 19(2), 180β197.
Swanwick, R., & Gregory, S. (2007). Sign bilingual education: Policy and practice. In M.
Marschark & P. C. Hauser (Eds.), Deaf cognition: Foundations and outcomes (pp. 287β
312). Oxford University Press.
Swanwick, R., & Marschark, M. (2010). Enhancing education for deaf children: Research into
practice and back again. Deafness & Education International, 12(4), 217β235.
https://doi.org/10.1179/1557069X10Y.0000000002
Swanwick, R., & Martchark, M. (2015). Translanguaging practices in deaf education: Policy
and pedagogy. Applied Linguistics Review, 6(2), 123β147.
Watson, L. M., Hardie, T., & Archbold, S. (2008). Deaf education and cochlear implantation:
Perspectives of parents and teachers. Deafness & Education International, 10(3), 152β
Wilbur, R. (2008). The Need for a Sign Language: Bilingual or Bicultural Sign Language
Education for Deaf Children. In C. Chamberlain, C. Lytle, & R. Herrmann (Eds.), Deaf
world: A historical reader and primary sourcebook (pp. 74β82). New York University
Press.
of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in general education classrooms. Journal of Deaf
Studies and Deaf Education, 16(2), 162β174.
Baker, C., & Cokely, D. (1980). American Sign Language: A Teacherβs Resource Text on
Grammar and Culture. Silver Spring, MD: T.J. Publishers.
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and
cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290β
https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290
Bonna, K., Finc, K., Zimmermann, M., Bola, ?., Mostowski, P., Szul, M., Rutkowski, P., Duch,
W., Marchewka, A., JednorΓ³g, K., & Szwed, M. (2019). Early deafness leads to
re-shaping of global functional connectivity beyond the auditory cortex. arXiv preprint.
https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1903.11915
Chamberlain, C., & Mayberry, R. (2008). The influence of sign language structure on early
bilingual literacy. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(4), 561β578.
https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enn021
Davidson, K., Lillo-Martin, D., & Chen Pichler, D. (2014). The right to language: Advancing
language in deaf children with cochlear implants. International Journal of Pediatric
Otorhinolaryngology, 78(3), 384β392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2013.12.021
Drasgow, E. (1993). Bilingual/Bicultural Deaf education: An overview. Sign Language Studies,
80, 243β266. https://doi.org/10.1353/sls.1993.0004
Fischer, S. (1998). Academic achievement among deaf students: The impact of bilingualism
and language deprivation. In M. Marschark (Ed.), Deaf cognition: Foundations and
outcomes (pp. 93β115). Oxford University Press.
Florian, L., & Black-Hawkins, K. (2011). Exploring inclusive pedagogy. British Educational
Research Journal, 37(5), 813β828.
Garcia, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education.
Palgrave Macmillan.
Grosjean, F. (2008). Studying bilinguals. Oxford University Press.
Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and reality. Harvard University Press.
Guardian editorial citing Hall, W. C. (2024, December). Cochlear implants make a useful
addition to sign language but should not replace access to ASL. The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/
Hall, W. C., Levin, L. L., & Anderson, M. L. (2017). Language deprivation syndrome: A
possible neurodevelopmental disorder with socio-cultural origins. Social Psychiatry
and
Psychiatric
Epidemiology,
52(6),
761β776.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1351-7
Hermans, D., Knoors, H., Ormel, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2008). The relation between the reading
and signing skills of deaf children in bilingual education programs. Journal of Deaf
Studies and Deaf Education, 13(4), 518β530.
Hoffmeister, R. J. (2000). A piece of the puzzle: ASL and reading comprehension in deaf
children. In C. Chamberlain, J. P. Morford, & R. I. Mayberry (Eds.), Language
acquisition by eye (pp. 143β163). Psychology Press.
Humphries, T., Kushalnagar, P., Mathur, G., Napoli, D. J., Padden, C., Rathmann, C., & Smith,
S. R. (2014). What medical education can do to ensure robust language development in
deaf children. Medical Science Educator, 24(3), 255β265.
Kellett, M., & Dar, A. (2007). Children researching their lives: Ethical issues and
participation. Routledge.
Koulidobrova, J., & Pichler, D. (2021). Translanguaging in bilingual deaf education teacher
preparation programs. Languages, 8(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010065
Kushalnagar, P., Hannay, H. J., & Hernandez, R. E. (2010). Deaf children with cochlear
implants: The influence of sign language on spoken language development. Journal of
Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15(5), 529β541.
Kushalnagar, P., Hannay, H., & Hernandez, G. (2010). Executive function among bilingual deaf
adults: CI users and native signers perform comparably. Journal of Deaf Studies and
Deaf Education, 15(4), 377β386. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enq024
Ladd, P. (2003). Understanding Deaf Culture: In Search of Deafhood. Multilingual Matters.
Lane, H., Hoffmeister, R., & Bahan, B. (1996). A journey into the Deaf-World. DawnSignPress.
Marschark, M., & Hauser, P. C. (2012). How deaf children learn: What parents and teachers
need to know. Oxford University Press.
Mayberry, R. I. (2002). When timing is everything: Age of first-language acquisition effects on
second-language
learning.
Applied
Psycholinguistics,
23(3),
537β549.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716402003031
Mayberry, R. I. (2007). When timing is everything: Age of first-language acquisition effects on
second-language learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28(3), 537β549.
Mayberry, R. I., & Kluender, R. (2017). Rethinking the critical period for language: New
insights into an old question from American Sign Language. Bilingualism: Language
and Cognition, 21(5), 886β905.
Mayer, C., & Akamatsu, C. T. (2003). Bilingualism and literacy. In M. Marschark & P. E.
Spencer (Eds.), Oxford handbook of deaf studies, language, and education (Vol. 1, pp.
136β147). Oxford University Press.
Mayer, C., & Leigh, G. (2010). The changing context for sign bilingual education programs:
Issues in language and the development of literacy. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism, 13(2), 175β186.
Padden, C., & Humphries, T. (2005). Inside Deaf Culture. Harvard University Press.
Peal, E., & Lambert, W. E. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological
Monographs, 76(27), 1β23. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093877
Petitto, L. A., Katerelos, M., Levy, B. G., Gauna, K., TΓ©trault, K., & Ferraro, V. (2001).
Bilingual signed and spoken language acquisition from birth: Implications for the
mechanisms underlying early bilingual language acquisition. Journal of Child
Language, 28(2), 453β496.
Swanwick, R. (2010). Policy and practice in sign bilingual education: Development,
challenges, and directions. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 13(2), 147β158.
Swanwick, R. (2016). Scaffolding learning through classroom talk: The role of bilingual
discourse in deaf education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 19(2), 180β197.
Swanwick, R., & Gregory, S. (2007). Sign bilingual education: Policy and practice. In M.
Marschark & P. C. Hauser (Eds.), Deaf cognition: Foundations and outcomes (pp. 287β
312). Oxford University Press.
Swanwick, R., & Marschark, M. (2010). Enhancing education for deaf children: Research into
practice and back again. Deafness & Education International, 12(4), 217β235.
https://doi.org/10.1179/1557069X10Y.0000000002
Swanwick, R., & Martchark, M. (2015). Translanguaging practices in deaf education: Policy
and pedagogy. Applied Linguistics Review, 6(2), 123β147.
Watson, L. M., Hardie, T., & Archbold, S. (2008). Deaf education and cochlear implantation:
Perspectives of parents and teachers. Deafness & Education International, 10(3), 152β
Wilbur, R. (2008). The Need for a Sign Language: Bilingual or Bicultural Sign Language
Education for Deaf Children. In C. Chamberlain, C. Lytle, & R. Herrmann (Eds.), Deaf
world: A historical reader and primary sourcebook (pp. 74β82). New York University
Press.
