Submit your papersSubmit Now
For Enquiries: [email protected]
IIARD LogoIIARD
📄 Download Paper

Integrating Fire Safety Strategies to Enhance Occupant Safety in Mixed-Use Buildings in Kaduna, Nigeria

Yunusa Bohnum Ayuba, R. E. Olagunju, and Emmamoge Orewere

Abstract

Access to adequate fire safety remains a significant challenge for many mixed-use buildings in Kaduna, Nigeria, where systems are often compromised by generator-dependent power, informal retail layouts, and low municipal water pressure. This study evaluates the integration of fire safety strategies in such buildings to enhance occupant safety and promote resilient design. A mixed- methods approach was adopted, combining quantitative data from 50 architectural and engineering professionals with qualitative case-study observations and photographic documentation. Nine fire safety strategies were examined, including compartmentation, pressurized stairwells, fire-rated doors, refuge floors, protected means of escape, zoned detection with battery backup, solar-powered detection, gravity-fed hose reels, and dry-pipe sprinkler systems. While compartmentation and pressurized stairwells recorded the highest knowledge levels (Means = 3.82 and 3.56 respectively), overall integration remained low across all strategies (all Means < 3.0). Cost implications and developer priorities emerged as the strongest barriers (Means = 4.72 and 4.64), whereas occupant safety and regulatory enforcement ranked highest among success factors (Means = 4.94 and 4.68). The study recommends strengthened code enforcement, capacity building on passive-first and context-adapted systems, and demonstration projects that quantify life-safety and lifecycle benefits. These findings contribute to the growing body of knowledge on fire safety in tropical urban contexts and provide practical guidance for architects, engineers, and policymakers seeking to enhance occupant safety in mixed-use buildings.

Keywords

Active strategiesFire safetyKadunaMixed-use buildingsOccupant safetyPassive strategies.

References

Adamu, E. M. K., Abubakar, A., & Maina, J. J. (2020). Assessment of Fire Safety Measures in Some Markets in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences (DUJOPAS), 6(3), 168-180. Alfakhry, A. A. (2026). The Interplay between Passive and Active Fire Safety Strategies in Shaping Architectural Design. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 17(1), 17A1D, 1-16. http://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2026.4 Buchanan, A. H., & Abu, A. K. (2017). Structural Design for Fire Safety (2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-0470972892 Cablé, A. (2018). Numerical study of the transient two-phase flow within sprinkler fire protection systems. AIP Conference Proceedings, 1, 030030. Cablé, A. (2019). Experimental and numerical study of sprinkler fire protection systems: Effect of initial pressure on system performance. Fire Safety Journal, 104, 103-112. Cochran, W. G. (1977). Sampling Techniques (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2023). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878744 Dobrovoļskis, A., Ziemelis, M., & Jemeļjanovs, V. (2025). Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sprinkler Fire Protection Systems. 24th International Scientific Conference 'Engineering for Rural Development': Proceedings, Vol.24, 829-833. https://doi.org/10.22616/ERDev.2025.24.TF170 Drysdale, D. (2011). An Introduction to Fire Dynamics (3rd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-0470319031 Federal Ministry of Works and Housing. (2013). National Fire Safety Code. Abuja: Federal Republic of Nigeria. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2006). National Building Code. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. Goyol, S. S. (2019). Building Agrarian Infrastructure Resilience against Climate Change Impacts: A Case of Plateau State Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, School of the Built Environment, University of Salford. HM Government. (2023). Approved Document B: Fire Safety. London: Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government. Hopkin, D., Spearpoint, M., & Fraser-Mitchell, J. (2022). Compartmentation in modern building design. Fire Safety Science, 13, 112-129. https://doi.org/10.3801/IAFSS.FSS.13-112 Ionescu, D.-A., Iordache, V., Ene, I.-C., & Anghel, I. (2026). Impact of Fire Source Locations and Ventilation Strategies on Indoor Environments: An FDS Simulation Study. Fire, 9(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9010022 Kaduna State Fire Service. (2025). Annual Fire Incident Report 2024. Kaduna: KSFS. Lee, A., & Lau, G. E. (2023). Smoke Control in High-Rise Residential Buildings with Stair Pressurization Systems. Fire, 6(4), 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6040132 Ma, J., Lo, S. M., & Song, W. G. (2012). Cellular automaton modeling approach for optimum ultra high-rise building evacuation design. Fire Safety Journal, 54, 57-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2012.07.008 IJEMT Majdalani, A. H., Calderón, I., Jahn, W., & Torero, J. L. (2024). Understanding Compartmentation Failure for High-Rise Timber Buildings. Fire, 7(6), 190. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060190 National Fire Protection Association. (2023). NFPA 101: Life Safety Code. Quincy, MA: NFPA. ISBN: 9781455930562 Premium Times. (2024, March 15). Panteka timber market fire causes substantial losses. Premium Times Nigeria. Purser, D. A. (2022). Evacuation and refuge floors in high-rise buildings. Fire Safety Science, 15, 34-51. Qurix, W.B., Emusa, H., Martins, R. R., & Ndandok, C.T. (2024). The development of architecture in Kaduna City, Nigeria, from 1960 to 2020. International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology, 72(6), 238-258. https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V72I6P124 Ronchi, E., Gwynne, S. M. V., & Purser, D. A. (2022). Phased evacuation strategies for high-rise buildings. Fire Safety Science, 14, 156-173. https://doi.org/10.3801/IAFSS.FSS.14-156 Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2022). Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506335193 Torero, J. L. (2023). Mixed-use buildings: Fire safety challenges and solutions. Fire Safety Journal, 126, 103491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2023.103491 United Nations Human Settlements Programme. (2024). World Cities Report 2024. Nairobi: UN- Habitat. https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210034567 Vanguard. (2021, August 12). Kaduna State University mini-market fire destroys over 120 shops. Vanguard Newspaper.

More Articles from INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND MODERN TECHNOLOGY

Comparative Analysis of the Compressive Strength of Concrete Made from Various Coarse Aggregates

Author: Aririguzo Chibueze Favour, Jennifer Oghenetejiri Ekpite, Mowang Martins Mogbu, Chinedu Franklin Elechi, Felixta Chioma Onyenwe, Anjolaoluwa Mumeen Sulyman, Mark Ogechi Munachimso, Azubuike Uzochukwu Tochi

Assessment of Waste Minimization Strategies in Urban Residential Building Construction Projects in Ede, Osun State, Nigeria

Author: Olayiwola Mojeed, Steve Jayeoba, Adeleke Ogunkoya, Olanrewaju Samuel Jacob,

Assessment of Passive Design Strategies for Thermal Comfort in Residential Buildings in Ede, Osun State, Nigeria

Author: Olayiwola Mojeed, Steve Jayeoba, Adeleke Ogunkoya, Olanrewaju Samuel Jacob,

Universal Design Principles as a Framework for Inclusive Architectural Practice: A Structured Approach to Architectural Decision Making

Author: Andenira Rimamfintin Ali, Henry Emusa and Abraham Ali

Data Driven Prediction and Assessment of 5.2 KVA Hybrid Solar Inverter Using Specialized Neural Network and Least Squares Regression for Academic Building Energy Management

Author: Adeoye, O. S,, Akinwole, O. O, Olofinjana, A.S, Ogunlowo, M.O, Ogunsakin,O, Bankole,T.S, Omojoyegbe, M. O, and Oluyemi, F, Oyedele, O.A, Aliu A. A, a,, Erinle, T.J , b, Ologunde, C.A, Akinwande, J.T