Emerging Technologies and Professional Re-Skilling Needs of Librarians in Tertiary Institution Libraries in Bayelsa State, Nigeria

services, while Bayelsa State Polytechnic reports an e-library, Wi-Fi-supported electronic resources and an institutional repository. The items in Section B were structured on a four-point scale of Very High Extent = 4, High Extent (HE) = 3, Low Extent (LE) = 2 and Very Low Extent = 1, while items in Section C were rated as Highly Needed (HN) = 4, Needed (N) = 3, Slightly Needed (SN) = 2 and Not Needed (NN) = 1. A criterion mean of 2.50 was adopted for interpretation. For the emerging technology utilisation scale, a mean score of 2.50 and above indicated high utilisation, while a mean below 2.50 indicated low utilisation. Similarly, for professional re-skilling needs, a mean score of 2.50 and above indicated that the competency was needed, while a mean below 2.50 indicated a relatively low re-skilling need. The instrument was subjected to face and content validation by three experts comprising two specialists in Library and Information Science and one expert in Measurement and Evaluation. The validators examined the relevance of the questionnaire items to the objectives and research questions, adequacy of coverage of emerging technologies and professional competencies, clarity of expression, appropriateness of the response scales, and suitability of the instrument for professional librarians. Particular attention was given to ensuring that the technology items reflected contemporary library practices rather than merely general ICT skills. Their observations, corrections and recommendations were incorporated into the final version of the instrument before administration. To establish the reliability of the instrument, a pilot study was conducted using 15 professional librarians from tertiary institution libraries in Rivers State, who were not included in the main study but operated within a comparable tertiary education environment. Data obtained from the pilot administration were analysed using Cronbach's Alpha method to determine the internal consistency of the two major scales. Reliability coefficients of 0.82 for emerging technology utilisation and 0.86 for professional re-skilling needs were obtained, while the overall instrument yielded a coefficient of 0.84. These coefficients were considered sufficiently high to establish the internal consistency of the instrument for the study. Data were collected using an online questionnaire developed with Google Forms. Following permission from the appropriate library authorities, the questionnaire link was distributed to the professional librarians through institutional e-mail addresses and professional WhatsApp platforms. Where necessary, designated contact persons within the participating libraries assisted in circulating the link to eligible respondents. The electronic method was considered suitable because the respondents were information professionals and the subject of investigation itself involved technology-related practices. It also facilitated participation by librarians located in institutions across different parts of Bayelsa State and enabled responses to be automatically captured for analysis. Participation was voluntary, respondents were informed of the academic purpose of the study, and no personally identifying information was required. Data collected were analysed using mean and standard deviation and independent-samples t-test. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the two research questions by determining the extent of utilisation of emerging technologies and the level of professional re-skilling needs of librarians. The two null hypotheses were tested using an independent-samples t-test because they involved comparing the mean responses of two independent groups—librarians in Federal and State-owned tertiary institutions. All hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance. The decision rule was that a null hypothesis was rejected where the calculated probability value (p) was less than or equal to 0.05, indicating a statistically significant difference between the groups; however, where the p-value was greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Results This section presents the results of the study based on data obtained from the 70 librarians included in the dataset. The analysis is presented according to the demographic characteristics of the respondents, research questions and hypotheses. Frequencies and percentages were used for the demographic variables, while mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions. The null hypotheses were tested using an independent-samples t-test at the 0.05 level of significance. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents (N = 70) Variable Category Frequency Percentage (%) Institutional Ownership Federal 27 38.6 State 43 61.4 Highest Qualification Diploma/HND in LIS 5 7.1 Bachelor's Degree 25 35.7 Master's Degree 24 34.3 Doctorate Degree 16 22.9 Years of Experience 1–5 years 16 22.9 6–10 years 27 38.6 11–15 years 17 24.3 16–20 years 5 7.1 Above 20 years 5 7.1 Professional Position Deputy Librarian 4 5.7 Principal/Chief Librarian 5 7.1 Senior Librarian 12 17.1 Librarian I 24 34.3 Librarian II 19 27.1 Other Professional Library Position 6 8.6 Table 1 shows that 27 (38.6%) of the respondents were librarians in Federal tertiary institutions, while 43 (61.4%) were from State-owned tertiary institutions. In terms of educational qualification, 25 (35.7%) possessed bachelor's degrees, 24 (34.3%) held master's degrees, 16 (22.9%) possessed doctoral degrees, while 5 (7.1%) had Diploma/HND qualifications in Library and Information Science. Regarding professional experience, the largest proportion, 27 (38.6%), had between 6 and 10 years of experience, followed by 17 (24.3%) with 11–15 years and 16 (22.9%) with 1–5 years of experience. The distribution by professional position further showed that Librarian I constituted the largest group with 24 (34.3%), followed by Librarian II with 19 (27.1%). The demographic distribution therefore indicates that the respondents represented different levels of qualification, professional experience and positions within the participating tertiary institution libraries. Research Question One To what extent do librarians in tertiary institution libraries in Bayelsa State utilise emerging technologies in the delivery of library services? Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation on the Extent of Utilisation of Emerging Technologies S/N Emerging Technology/Practice Mean SD Decision 1 Library automation systems 2.51 0.93 High Extent 2 Online Public Access Catalogue 2.54 0.97 High Extent 3 Electronic databases/e-journal platforms 2.67 0.90 High Extent 4 Institutional repositories 2.71 0.93 High Extent S/N Emerging Technology/Practice Mean SD Decision 5 Digital library platforms 2.47 1.05 Low Extent 6 Artificial intelligence/generative AI tools 2.59 0.97 High Extent 7 AI-assisted reference and research support tools 2.77 0.97 High Extent 8 Cloud-based applications 2.53 0.99 High Extent 9 Social media platforms 2.60 0.82 High Extent 10 Mobile technologies and applications 2.46 1.10 Low Extent 11 Virtual reference platforms 2.63 1.01 High Extent 12 Web-based information literacy tools 2.64 1.02 High Extent 13 Digitisation and digital preservation tools 2.89 0.89 High Extent 14 Reference management software 2.61 0.92 High Extent 15 Plagiarism/academic-integrity technologies 2.53 0.97 High Extent 16 Data analysis and visualisation tools 2.79 0.93 High Extent 17 Online collaboration/productivity platforms 2.79 0.95 High Extent 18 Digital current awareness/SDI technologies 2.57 0.89 High Extent Grand Mean 2.63 0.27 High Extent Criterion mean = 2.50. Table 2 shows that librarians utilised emerging technologies to a high extent, with a grand mean of 2.63, which exceeded the criterion mean of 2.50. Digitisation and digital preservation tools recorded the highest mean score (M = 2.89, SD = 0.89), followed by data analysis and visualisation tools (M = 2.79, SD = 0.93) and online collaboration/productivity platforms (M = 2.79, SD = 0.95). AI-assisted reference and research support tools also recorded relatively high utilisation (M = 2.77, SD = 0.97). However, mobile technologies and applications (M = 2.46, SD = 1.10) and digital library platforms (M = 2.47, SD = 1.05) fell below the criterion mean. The result therefore indicates that, although emerging technologies are generally utilised by librarians in tertiary institution libraries in Bayelsa State, utilisation is not equally developed across all technological applications. Research Question Two What is the professional re-skilling needs of librarians for the effective utilisation of emerging technologies in tertiary institution libraries in Bayelsa State? Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation on Professional Re-skilling Needs of Librarians S/N Professional Re-skilling Area Mean SD Decision 1 Effective use of AI/generative AI tools 3.27 0.85 Needed 2 Critical evaluation of AI-generated information 3.33 0.77 Needed 3 AI ethics, copyright and privacy 3.30 0.89 Needed 4 Library automation systems 3.29 0.85 Needed 5 Institutional repository management 3.24 0.73 Needed 6 Electronic resource management 3.33 0.76 Needed 7 Digitisation and digital preservation 3.29 0.80 Needed 8 Cloud-based technologies 3.29 0.84 Needed S/N Professional Re-skilling Area Mean SD Decision 9 Cybersecurity 3.04 0.86 Needed 10 Data literacy 3.27 0.82 Needed 11 Data analysis and visualisation 3.54 0.67 Needed 12 Reference management software 3.33 0.79 Needed 13 Virtual reference and online research support 3.40 0.67 Needed 14 Digital and information literacy instruction 3.20 0.77 Needed 15 Social media and digital communication 3.31 0.83 Needed 16 Research data management 3.33 0.77 Needed 17 Scholarly communication, open access and OER 3.33 0.83 Needed 18 Evaluation and integration of emerging technologies 3.36 0.82 Needed 19 Emerging digital research support 3.19 0.87 Needed 20 Continuous professional development and adaptation 3.33 0.85 Needed Grand Mean 3.30 0.18 Needed Criterion mean = 2.50. Table 3 reveals that all the identified areas constituted professional re-skilling needs, as every item recorded a mean above the criterion mean of 2.50. The overall grand mean of 3.30 confirms a generally high need for further professional development among the librarians. Data analysis and visualisation recorded the highest re-skilling need (M = 3.54, SD = 0.67), followed by virtual reference and online research support (M = 3.40, SD = 0.67) and the evaluation and integration of emerging technologies (M = 3.36, SD = 0.82). Although cybersecurity recorded the lowest mean (M = 3.04, SD = 0.86), it remained substantially above the criterion mean. The result therefore suggests that librarians require professional re-skilling across a broad range of emerging technological competencies despite their reported utilisation of many of these technologies. Test of Hypotheses Hypothesis One H01: There is no significant difference between librarians in Federal and State tertiary institution libraries in Bayelsa State in their extent of utilisation of emerging technologies for library service delivery. Table 4: Independent-Samples t-test of Federal and State Librarians' Utilisation of Emerging Technologies Institution N Mean SD df t p Decision Federal 27 2.82 0.23 State 43 2.51 0.22 68 5.89 <.001 Reject H0 Table 4 shows that librarians in Federal tertiary institutions recorded a higher mean utilisation score (M = 2.82, SD = 0.23) than their counterparts in State tertiary institutions (M = 2.51, SD = 0.22). The independent-samples t-test yielded t(68) = 5.89, p < .001. Since the probability value was less than the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. There is therefore a statistically significant difference between librarians in Federal and State tertiary institution libraries in their utilisation of emerging technologies, with Federal institution librarians reporting higher utilisation. Hypothesis Two H02: There is no significant difference between librarians in Federal and State tertiary institution libraries in Bayelsa State in their professional re-skilling needs for the effective utilisation of emerging technologies. Table 5: Independent-Samples t-test of Federal and State Librarians' Professional Re- skilling Needs Institution N Mean SD df t p Decision Federal 27 3.24 0.17 State 43 3.34 0.18 68 -2.32 .023 Reject H0 Table 5 indicates that librarians in State tertiary institutions reported a higher level of professional re-skilling need (M = 3.34, SD = 0.18) than librarians in Federal tertiary institutions (M = 3.24, SD = 0.17). The independent-samples t-test produced t(68) = -2.32, p = .023. Since the probability value was less than 0.05, the null hypothesis was rejected. There is therefore a statistically significant difference between Federal and State tertiary institution librarians in their professional re-skilling needs, with librarians in State institutions reporting comparatively greater re-skilling needs. Discussion of Findings The finding of the study revealed that librarians in tertiary institution libraries in Bayelsa State utilised emerging technologies to a high extent, although the level of utilisation varied across the technologies examined. Particularly notable was the relatively high utilisation of digitisation and digital preservation tools, data analysis and visualisation tools, online collaboration platforms, and AI-assisted reference and research support tools. This finding suggests that the professional activities of librarians in the State are gradually extending beyond conventional library routines towards digitally mediated information and research services. Nevertheless, the comparatively low utilisation of mobile technologies and digital library platforms demonstrates that technological transition is uneven rather than comprehensive. This finding is consistent with Oladokun (2023), who observed that although Nigerian academic librarians are increasingly applying emerging technologies to research support, the overall pace of adoption remains constrained by infrastructure, skills and institutional conditions. It also supports the more recent finding that Nigerian librarians are adapting to technologies associated with contemporary industrial transformation, notwithstanding persistent limitations in ICT resources (Ogunmodede et al., 2026). The study further established that librarians had substantial professional re-skilling needs across all the competency areas investigated. The strongest needs were recorded in data analysis and visualisation, virtual reference and online research support, and the evaluation and integration of emerging technologies. This is significant because the utilisation of technology does not necessarily imply mastery of the competencies required to apply it critically and professionally. Librarians may interact with digital tools while still requiring deeper knowledge to exploit their capabilities for research support, information management, and user-centred services. The finding agrees with Edet and Alex-Nmecha (2023), who found that although librarians in Rivers State had acquired several digital skills, competencies in specialised areas such as data mining, cybersecurity and metadata remained comparatively weak. Similarly, Ajayi et al. (2024) found continuing training needs among academic and research librarians despite their awareness of emerging technologies and participation in professional development activities. The implication is that professional re-skilling should not be treated as a one-off response to technological change but as a continuous component of contemporary librarianship. The finding on institutional ownership showed a significant difference between librarians in Federal and State tertiary institutions in their utilisation of emerging technologies, with Federal institution librarians reporting higher utilisation. This difference suggests that technology adoption may be shaped not only by individual willingness or professional competence but also by the institutional environment within which librarians operate. Access to technological infrastructure,