Wireless System-On-Chip Performance in Next-Generation Internet of Things Devices: A Systematic Review of Integrated Transceiver Testing Methodologies Page 76

characterization first, followed by the receiver sensitivity characterization for each protocol from the lowest to the highest frequency band, followed by the transmitter performance characterization for each protocol, and concluding with the cross-protocol interference characterization that requires both radios to be active simultaneously. This sequence minimizes the number of instrument reconfigurations because the measurements progress logically from single-protocol, single-frequency conditions to multi-protocol, multi-frequency conditions, and the calibration state established for each measurement type remains valid for the subsequent measurements in the same category without requiring recalibration. The total characterization time for the complete multi-protocol sequence, using the automation framework described in Section 5, is approximately six hours for a single device, compared to twelve to fourteen hours for the same characterization performed manually without automation, demonstrating the productivity benefit of the automated approach. (Himmelfarb et al., 2021; Hirasawa et al., 1992; Hong et al., 2001; Howlader et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2022) The management of characterization data for multi-protocol SoC devices requires a database schema that can associate each measurement result with the protocol, frequency band, test condition, and instrument calibration state under which it was produced, enabling the cross- protocol comparison queries needed for interference characterization analysis and the longitudinal analysis queries needed for process capability monitoring across production batches. A flat file approach, in which each measurement is stored as a row in a spreadsheet with the measurement metadata as column headers, provides sufficient structure for single-device characterization reports but becomes unwieldy for the multi-device, multi-batch analyses needed for process control and reliability monitoring. A relational database with foreign key relationships between the device table, the measurement table, the calibration state table, and the test condition table provides the query flexibility needed for both single-device reports and multi-device analyses, and should be adopted as the standard data management infrastructure for any multi-protocol SoC characterization program that involves more than ten devices per characterization campaign. (Taflove et al., 2005; Taga, 1990; Taghavi et al., 2022; Takahashi et al., 2022; Tang et al., 2023; Texas, 2023) (Olatunde-Thorpe et al., 2020) 10. Limitations and Future Research The scope of this review is limited to the characterization of wireless SoC devices operating in the sub-6 GHz frequency bands that support the Bluetooth, BLE, Wi-Fi 2.4 GHz, Wi-Fi 5 GHz, and IEEE 802.15.4 standards. The rapidly growing category of wireless SoC devices that integrate ultra-wideband ranging capability alongside the short-range wireless standards is not covered, because the UWB characterization methodology is fundamentally different from the narrowband receiver and transmitter characterization methods reviewed in this paper, requiring time-domain measurement techniques and channel sounding procedures that are specific to the UWB pulse- based modulation format. Similarly, the integration of sub-GHz wireless protocols such as LoRa and Wi-SUN into combo SoC platforms creates characterization requirements at 868 MHz and 915 MHz that are not addressed by the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz measurement infrastructure assumed throughout this review. (Ogbete et al., 2018; Ogbete et al., 2023; Ogbete et al., 2025; Ogbete et al., 2026; Ogbete et al., 2021; Ogbona et al., 2020a) The characterization of wireless SoC devices operating in multi-antenna configurations, including MIMO systems for Wi-Fi 6 and diversity antenna systems for Bluetooth 5, requires measurement approaches that extend the single-port characterization methods reviewed in this paper to the full multi-port signal environment. MIMO characterization requires the measurement of the full spatial multiplexing capability of the device, including the number of simultaneously achievable spatial streams, the spatial stream isolation, and the beam-forming gain as a function of the channel condition and the number of associated stations. These measurements require specialized multi- port signal sources, multi-port receivers, and antenna array calibration procedures that are substantially more complex than the single-port measurements covered in this review. A dedicated systematic review of multi-antenna wireless SoC characterization methods, addressing both the conducted and over-the-air characterization approaches for MIMO and beamforming devices, would make a valuable contribution to the field and is identified as a priority topic for future research. (Huang et al., 2022; Ibrahim et al., 2023; IEEE, 2012; IEEE, 2016; IEEE, 2021; Ikpehai et al., 2019) 11. Conclusions 11.1 Summary of Key Contributions This systematic review has provided a comprehensive examination of the testing methodologies for wireless system-on-chip platforms integrating multiple short-range wireless standards, addressing the receiver sensitivity, transmitter performance, multi-protocol coexistence, and cross- protocol interference characterization methods that collectively define the quality of the wireless communication performance of a multi-standard IoT device. The review has synthesized these individual characterization methodologies into a unified characterization workflow that sequences the measurements in the order that minimizes total characterization time while maintaining the calibration traceability required for regulatory compliance, and has demonstrated the application of this workflow to a BLE 5.2 and Wi-Fi 6 combo SoC in an extended case study that illustrates the practical implementation challenges and resolution strategies for the most demanding characterization scenarios. The key finding of this review is that the multi-protocol characterization of wireless SoCs is qualitatively different from the single-protocol characterization of individual wireless devices, not only because of the larger number of measurements required but because of the cross-protocol interference interactions that are unique to the integrated platform and cannot be characterized by independent single-protocol measurements. The cross-protocol interference characterization, which requires both wireless protocols to be simultaneously active and precisely configured while the receiver sensitivity of each protocol is independently measured, demands a level of instrument coordination and automation sophistication that exceeds the requirements of any single-protocol characterization procedure. The investment in developing and qualifying this multi-protocol characterization automation infrastructure is justified by the production quality assurance value it provides and by its role in enabling the early detection of cross-protocol interference issues that, if discovered after hardware tooling has been released, would require costly design revisions. The characterization of the wireless SoC frequency synthesizer performance is a prerequisite for interpreting all other characterization results correctly, because the synthesizer generates the local oscillator signals that determine the carrier frequency accuracy of the transmitter and the channel selectivity of the receiver. A synthesizer with excessive phase noise introduces a noise floor in the receiver baseband that degrades the sensitivity at high signal levels relative to the noise floor sensitivity, creating an effective dynamic range limitation that is distinct from the receiver noise figure and is characterized separately using a phase noise measurement. The phase noise measurement is performed by transmitting a continuous unmodulated carrier at the SoC transmit port and measuring the single-sideband phase noise power spectral density at frequency offsets of 1 kHz, 10 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz from the carrier using a signal source analyzer or spectrum analyzer in phase noise measurement mode. The measured phase noise is compared against the protocol-specific phase noise specification, which is typically expressed as a maximum single- sideband phase noise in dBc per Hz at specified offset frequencies, to verify that the synthesizer meets the specification across the full frequency range covered by the multi-standard SoC. 11.2 Practical Implications and Recommendations The receiver blocking performance of a wireless SoC characterizes its ability to maintain sensitivity in the presence of strong out-of-band interfering signals that fall outside the receiver channel bandwidth. Blocking performance is particularly important for multi-standard SoCs because the co-located transmitter of one wireless standard can act as a blocker for the receiver of the other wireless standard, creating an in-band blocking condition that is more severe than the out-of-band blocking specified in the receiver sensitivity standard. The characterization procedure for receiver blocking injects an interfering signal at increasing power levels at a specified offset frequency from the receiver center frequency while measuring the receiver sensitivity using the standard PER-based procedure, and records the interferer power at which the sensitivity degrades by 3 dB relative to the unblocked sensitivity. The blocking characterization is performed at multiple offset frequencies to map the blocker susceptibility across the out-of-band frequency range, revealing any resonances in the receiver filter frequency response that create blocker susceptibility peaks at specific frequencies that exceed the general blocker specification. The characterization of the SoC antenna switch performance is a critical but frequently incomplete element of the multi-standard characterization workflow because the antenna switch, which routes the transmit and receive signals of each wireless standard to the shared antenna port, is the single component through which all transmitted and received signals must pass. The antenna switch characterization includes the measurement of the insertion loss in each switch state, the port-to- port isolation between the active and inactive throw ports, the harmonic generation from the switch in the transmit configuration, and the intermodulation distortion from the switch when two strong signals are simultaneously present at its input. The harmonic generation characterization is particularly important for regulatory compliance because the antenna switch can generate harmonic signals at twice and three times the transmit frequency that fall within the receive bands of other wireless services and must comply with the emission limits specified for those services. The intermodulation characterization is important for the cross-protocol interference analysis because the switch can generate intermodulation products when both the Bluetooth and Wi-Fi transmitters are simultaneously active, creating interference in the receive band of whichever protocol is in the receive state. The calibration of the automated characterization system for wireless SoC testing requires careful attention to the reference plane definition, because the loss between the calibration reference plane and the device RF port degrades the sensitivity of the calibration and introduces systematic measurement error into all subsequent characterizations performed without recalibration. The calibration procedure must be repeated whenever the instrument configuration changes, whenever a cable, adapter, or test fixture component is replaced, or whenever the ambient temperature changes by more than the temperature stability specification of the instrument, because each of these events may alter the systematic error correction stored in the calibration memory. The validation of the wireless SoC characterization framework against independent measurement references provides the engineering organization with confidence that the framework's predictions of receiver sensitivity, transmitter EVM, and cross-protocol interference margin are accurate within the stated measurement uncertainty, and this validation should be repeated whenever the framework is extended to a new wireless protocol or a new hardware platform to confirm that the extension preserves the accuracy demonstrated in the original validation. 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