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Conceptualizing Sand fly Distribution and Control: A Synthesis of Vector Ecology, Spatial Epidemiology, and Integrated Management Approaches

Onyechere CU, Njoku-TonyRF, Ihejirika CE, Nwaogu C, Njionye UO, Benson-Ubochi C

Abstract

Phlebotomine sandflies are vectors of leishmaniasis, a neglected tropical disease of significant public health concern. Their distribution and abundance are influenced by environmental, climatic, ecological, and behavioral factors that shape transmission dynamics. This review synthesizes current knowledge on sandfly ecology, spatial epidemiology, and integrated vector management . Evidence shows that temperature, humidity, rainfall, vegetation, and land use are key determinants of sandfly survival, breeding, and spatial distribution, while climate change is driving range expansion into new areas. Spatial epidemiological tools, including geospatial mapping and predictive modeling, improve identification of transmission hotspots and guide targeted interventions. However, control efforts remain limited by poor integration of ecological and behavioral factors. IVM, combining environmental, biological, and chemical approaches with community participation, offers a sustainable solution. Plant-based repellents also show promise as eco- friendly alternatives, though further validation is required.

Keywords

Phlebotomine sandfliesleishmaniasisvector ecologyspatial epidemiologyintegrated vector managementplant-based repellents

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