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Evaluation of the Formation, Concentration, and Mitigation of Heterocyclic Amines in Selected Nigerian Proteinaceous Delicacies

Jimah Abdulrahman, Oregbemhe Henry, 2, and, Suleiman Mohammed

Abstract

This study characterised the kinetics and concentration profiles of six HCA congeners — 2-Amino- 1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine , 2-Amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5- f]quinoxaline , 2-Amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (DiMeIQx), 2-Amino- 3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), 1-Methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole , and 9H- pyrido[3,4-b]indole (norharman) — in six Nigerian food preparations (grilling of popular delicacies — including suya, kilishi, asun, and smoked catfish (eja aro)) using validated liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) under three cooking modalities (charcoal grilling, pan-frying, oven-roasting). The inhibitory potential of five natural marinade formulations — beer, red wine, herb-and-garlic, lemon juice, and turmeric-black pepper — was also quantified under standardised grilling conditions (230°C, 20 min). Kilishi generated the highest total HCA burden (109.5 ± 8.5 ng/g) owing to its highly concentrated creatine matrix (820 mg/100g; Table 1), followed by pan-fried chicken (96.3 ± 7.6 ng/g) and charcoal-grilled suya beef (85.3 ± 6.6 ng/g; Table 2). PhIP formation in suya beef followed a second-order polynomial kinetic model (R2 = 0.97, p < 0.001; Ea = 68.4 kJ/mol; Table 3, Figure 1). Turmeric-black pepper marinade achieved the greatest HCA suppression (61.1%; Table 4), strongly correlated with total polyphenol content (r = −0.83, p < 0.001) and DPPH radical scavenging capacity (r = −0.86, p < 0.001). Sensory evaluation (sensory panel size, n = 15) confirmed that effective marinade concentrations did not significantly impair consumer acceptability (p > 0.05; Table 5). These findings establish a mechanistic and practically applicable basis for locally adaptable HCA mitigation strategies relevant to Nigerian and West African food contexts.

Keywords

Heterocyclic amines; LC-MS/MS; Suya; Kilishi; Asun; Eja Aro; Charcoal grilling; marinades; Mitigation; Nigeria; Food safety

References

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