An Optimal Control Study of Ebola Transmission Incorporating Enlightenment and Drug Effectiveness

[1] Zheng, H., Yin, C., Hoang, T., He, R.L., Yang, J., Yau, S.S. (2015). Ebolavirus classification based on natural vectors. DNA and Cell Biology, 34(6), 418–428. doi: 10.1089/dna.2014.2678 [2] Breman, J.G., Heymann, D.L., Loyd, G., McCormick, J.B., Miatudila, M., Murphy, F.A., ... & Johnson, K.M. (2016). Discovery and description of Ebola Zaire virus in 1976 and relevance to the West African epidemic during 2013–2016. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 214, 93–101. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiw207 [3] Agina, P.C., Chukwuma, E.I., Chuka-Obidiegwu, B.E., Otugene, V.B., Ibeh, K.K., & Mbah, G.C.E. (2026). Local and Global Stability Analysis of the Disease-Free Equilibrium in a Fractional-Order Ebola Virus Transmission Model. International Journal of Applied Science and Mathematical Theory, 12(3), 30 – 48. [4] UK Health Security Agency. (2023). Ebola: overview, history, origins and transmission. Retrieved October 29, 2025, from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ebola- origins-reservoirs-transmission-and-guidelines/ebola-overview-history-origins-and- transmission. [5] Agina, P.C., Chuka-Obidiegwu, B.E., Chukwuma, E.I., Ibeh, K.K., Otugene, V.B., & Mbah, G.C.E. (2026). An Approximate Solution of a Fractional-order Epidemic Model using the Homotopy Perturbation Method. International Journal of Applied Science and Mathematical Theory, 12(3). [6] World Health Organization . (2023). Ebola virus disease. Retrieved January 15, 2026, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease [7] BMJ Best Practice. (n.d.). Ebola virus disease. BMJ Publishing Group. 2025. Retrieved from https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology . [8] Otugene, V.B., Agina, P.C., Edogbanya, H., & Digwo, D.C. (2022). Existence and uniqueness analysis of Atangana-Baleanu fractional order network model of Noro virus. International Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Modelling, 5(2), 63–75. [9] Otugene, V.B., Mbah, G.C.E, Owhenagbo, P., Idoko, P.I., Adedoyin, J.D., Enyejo, L.A., & Agina, P.C. (2024). Mathematical Analysis of Hepatitis B Virus Transmission Dynamics in the Absence of Therapy with Atangana-Baleanu Fractional-order SPQWXY Model. Journal of Advances in Mathematics and Computer Science, 39(11), 1–28. [10] Otugene, V.B., Agina, P.C., Ezeora, D.I., & Ibeh, K.K. (2026). Modeling Inflation Dynamics with Atangana-Baleanu Fractional Derivatives: A Memory-Driven Approach to Consumer Price Index Forecasting. Iconic Research and Engineering Journals, 9(9), 2000–2022. [11] Wang, X., & Wang, X. (2024). Optimal control of a fractional-order new psychoactive substance model. Journal of Nonlinear Modeling and Analysis, 6(3), 573–588. [12] Ahmad, M.D., Usman, M., Khan, A., & Imran, M. (2016). Optimal control analysis of Ebola disease with control strategies of quarantine and vaccination. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 5(72). [13] Are, E.B. (2016). Global stability and bifurcation analysis of a generalized Ebola virus disease model with dead infectives. Conference proceedings of the Southern Africa Mathematical Sciences Assiociation – SAMSA, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. Retrieved December 7, 2025, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322100188 [14] Agina, P.C., Otugene, V.B., Adedoyin, J.D., Chukwuma, E.I., Chuka-Obidiegwu, B.E., Ezeora, D.I., & Mbah, G.C.E. (2025). Derivation of the basic reproduction number using the next generation matrix for a non-linear Ebola Virus transmission model. International Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Modelling, 8(2), 555–573. [15] Madubueze, C.E., Kimbir, A.R., & Aboiyar, T. (2018). Global stability of Ebola virus disease model with contact tracing and quarantine. Applications and Applied Mathematics, 13(1), 382-403. [16] Didigwu, N.E., Mbah, G.C.E., & Bassey, E.B. (2020). Optimal control analysis model of Ebola virus infection: Impact of socio-economic status. International Journal of Applied Science and Mathematics, 6(6), 2394–2894. [17] Mbah, G.C.E., Onah, I.S., Ahman, Q.O., Collins, O.C., Asogwa, C.C., & Okoye, C. (2023). Mathematical modeling approach of the study of Ebola virus disease transmission dynamics in a developing country. African Journal of Infectious Diseases, 17(1), 10–26. https://doi.org/10.21010/Ajidv17il.2 [18] Pontryagin, L.S., Boltyanskii, V.G., Gamkrelidze, R.V., & Mishchenko, E.F. (1962). The Mathematical Theory of Optimal Processes. New York, NY: Wiley. [19] Fleming, W.H., & Rishel, R.W. (1975). Deterministic and stochastic optimal control. New York, NY: Springer Verlag; 1975. [20] Didigwu, N.E., & Mbah, G.C.E. (2020). Mathematical modeling of the impact of socioeconomic status on the transmission dynamics of Ebola virus disease [Ph.D. Thesis]. Department of Mathematics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. [21] Agina, P.C. & Echezona, G.N. (2022). Comparative analysis of the Gauss-Seidel and Jacobi methods for solving linear systems. COOU Journal of Physical Sciences, 5(1), 60–79. [22] Statista. (2024). “Africa: mortality rate 2000–2027 / Statista”. Retrieved October 15, 2025, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1227851/crude-death-rate-in-africa/. [23] Ahman, Q.O., Omale, D., Asogwa, C.C., Nnaji, D.U., & Mbah, G.C.E. (2021). Transmission dynamics of Ebola virus disease with vaccine, condom use, quarantine, isolation and treatment drug. African Journal of Infectious Diseases, 15(1), 10–23. https: //doi.org/10.21010/ajidv15i1.2 [24] Gomes, M.F.C., Piontti, A.P., Rossi, L., Chao, D., Longini, I., Hallorans, M.E., & Vespignani, A. (2014). Assessing the international spreading risk associated with the 2014 West African Ebola outbreak. PLOS Currents Outbreak, Sep 2, Edition 1. doi: 10.1371/currents.outbreaks.cd818f63d40e24aef769dda7df9e0da5. [25] Legrand, J., Grais, R.F., Boelle, P.Y., Valleron, A.J., & Flahault, A. (2007). Understanding the dynamics of Ebola epidemics. Epidemiology & Infection, 135(5), 610–621. doi:10.1017/S0950268806007217 [26] Rivers, C.M., Lofgren, E.T., Marathe, M., Eubank, S., & Lewis, B.L. (2014). Modeling the impact of interventions on an epidemic of Ebola in Sierra Leone and Liberia. PLOS Currents, 6(6). doi: 10.1371/currents.outbreaks.fd38dd85078565450b0be3fcd78f5ccf