Geospatial Analysis of Topographic and Hydrological Controls on Flood Susceptibility
Abstract
This study evaluates the influence of topographic and hydrological factors on flood susceptibility in the South–South region of Nigeria using Geographic Information Systems , Remote Sensing, and the Analytical Hierarchy Process . Digital Elevation Model , slope, aspect, drainage density, stream density, flow direction, and distance from river variables were analysed to determine their contribution to flooding. The results show that elevation ranges from approximately 13 m in low-lying coastal areas (Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa, and Akwa Ibom States) to about 256 m in elevated inland areas (Cross River and parts of Edo State). Slope analysis indicates that coastal areas are dominated by very gentle slopes (0°–3.37°), which promote water accumulation and increase flood susceptibility. Aspect results further reveal that much of the coastal region is predominantly flat (−1), limiting directional flow and enhancing water stagnation. Hydrological analysis shows that drainage density is mainly very low to moderate (0– 89.89 km/km2), indicating high infiltration but increased water retention, while localized high values (89.9–134.8 km/km2) enhance runoff. Stream density is highest (228.1–811 km/km2) in Delta, Bayelsa, and Rivers States, whereas lower values occur in Edo and Cross River. Flow direction exhibits a dominant east–west pattern, with accumulation values ranging from 1–16, indicating runoff convergence. Distance-to-river analysis shows that large areas lie within 0– 1,000 m of river channels. Flood susceptibility is highest in coastal zones and lowest in inland elevated areas. The study demonstrates that terrain morphology and hydrological network characteristics are key determinants of flooding in the region and highlights the effectiveness of geospatial techniques in flood susceptibility assessment and management in the South–South region of Nigeria
Keywords
Flood susceptibilityGISRemote sensingAnalytical Hierarchy Process IIARD International Journal of Geography & Environmental Management
References
Abass, M. I. K., Dumedah, G., Frempong, F., Muntaka, A. S., Appiah, D. O., Garsonu, E. K., & Gyasi, R. M. (2022). Rising incidence and risks of floods in urban Ghana: Is climate change to blame? Cities, 121, Article 103495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103495 Abba, B. M., Maina, M. B., & Maiva, I. M. (2022). Assessment of flood incidence and its socio-economic implications in Damaturu, Yobe State, Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS, 6(3), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2022-0603-995 Abijith, D., Saravanan, S., Parthasarathy, K. S. S., Reddy, N. M., Niraimathi, J., Bindajam, A. A., & Abdo, H. G. (2025). Assessing the impact of climate and land use change on flood vulnerability: a machine learning approach in the coastal region of Tamil Nadu, India. Geoscience Letters, 12(1), 1 Aborode, A. T., Otorkpa, O. J., Abdullateef, A. O., Oluwaseun, O. S., Adegoye, G. A., Aondongu, N. J., Oyetunji, I. O., Akingbola, A., Scott, G. Y., Kolawole, B. O., & Komakech, J. J. (2025). Impact of Climate Change-Induced Flooding Water Related Diseases and Malnutrition in Borno State, Nigeria: A Public Health Crisis. Environmental health insights, 19, 11786302251321683. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786302251321683 Acosta-España, J. D., Romero-Alvarez, D., Luna, C., & Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. (2024). Infectious disease outbreaks in the wake of natural flood disasters: global patterns and local implications. Le infezioni in medicina, 32(4), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.53854/liim- 3204-4 Adangor, Z. (2015). The principle of derivation and the search for distributive justice in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: The journey so far. Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization, 41, 115 Ahmad, R., Abdul Maulud, K. N., Bin Zamir, U., Mohd Razali, S. F., Yaseen, Z. M., Pradhan, B., ... Eshquvvatov, B. (2025). A systematic literature review of digital elevation models and hydrological models integration for advanced flood risk management. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2025.2549487 Ahmed, I., Das, N., Debnath, J., Bhowmik, M., & Bhattacharjee, S. (2024). Flood hazard zonation using GIS-based multi-parametric Analytical Hierarchy Process. Geosystems and Geoenvironment, 3(2), 100250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2023.100250 Al-Juaidi, A. E. M. (2023). The interaction of topographic slope with various geo-environmental flood-causing factors on flood prediction and susceptibility mapping. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(21), 59327–59348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356- 023-26616-y Bisong, A. E., Miepamo, W., Ndinyenma, W. P., & Douye, W. P.-E. (2024). Assessment of Flood Vulnerability Levels in the Lower Orashi River, Niger Delta Region, Nigeria. Journal of Geography, Environment and Earth Science International, 28(5), 87–106. https://doi.org/10.9734/jgeesi/2024/v28i5772 Brown, N. C., & Nyeduko, V. N. (2025). A GIS-based spatial analysis of basin morphology, surface flow accumulation and land-cover patterns in Ondo State, Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Impact International Journals of Sciences, Education and Arts, 1(4), 580–589. https://impactinternationaljournals.com/publications/index.php/ojs/article/view/171 Coffie-Anum, E., Kuma, J. S. Y., Ewusi, A., Affam, M., Ziggah, Y. Y., & Awuah-Offei, K. (2025). Derivation of fractured rock hybrid analytical equation for estimation of groundwater inflow into mine pit using major fault trigonometry. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 70(1), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2024.2419603 IIARD International Journal of Geography & Environmental Management Effiom, I. U., & Daniel, M. G. (2024). Groundwater water potential mapping in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria using remote sensing and geospatial technique. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation, 5(6), 1398–1407 Eyankware, M. O., Mba-Otike, M. N., Odesa, G. E., Chukwusa, F. O., Osisanya, W. O., Eyankware-Ulakpa, R. O., Akakuru, O. C., & Komolafe, N. P. (2025). Saline intrusion in Niger Delta coastal aquifers: Drivers, hydrogeological dynamics and mitigation strategies. Discover Geoscience, 3, 150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44288-025-00264-w Feizbahr, M., Brake, N., Arbabkhah, H., Hariri Asli, H., & Woods, K. (2025). Flood Susceptibility Mapping Using Machine Learning and Geospatial-Sentinel-1 SAR Integration for Enhanced Early Warning Systems. Remote Sensing, 17(20), 3471. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17203471 Fitra, J., Debataraja, S. M. T., & Lismawaty. (2024). Identification of flood vulnerability using the topographic wetness index method in Pantai Labu Baru village, Deli Serdang, North Sumatera. E3S Web of Conferences, 483, 01014. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202448301014 Gabriel, A. T., Yusuf, M. B., Bwadi, B. E., & Clement, Y. G. (2020). Morphometric analysis and flash floods assessment of River Taraba Basin in Taraba State, Nigeria. European Scientific Journal, 16(20), 158–175. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2020.v16n20p158 Gambo, J., Roslan, S. N. A. binti, Shafri, H. Z. M., Che Ya, N. N., Yusuf, Y. A., & Ang, Y. (2024). Unveiling and modelling the flood risk and multidimensional poverty determinants using geospatial multi-criteria approach: Evidence from Jigawa, Nigeria. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 106, 104400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104400 Harry, T., Asuaiko, E., Akata, N., & Akpan, N. (2020). Mapping Ground Water Potential Recharge Zones in Parts of Akwa Ibom State Using Geographic Information System (G.I.S). https://doi.org/10.7176/cer/12-2-08 Husein, M., Takele, T., Diriba, D., & Karuppannan, S. (2025). Flood hazard and risk assessment using GIS and remote sensing in the case of Ziway Lake watershed, central Main Ethiopian Rift. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 28, 100920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2025.100920 Ikese, C. O., Ubwa, S. T., Okopi, S. O., Akaasah, Y. N., Onah, G. A., Targba, S. H., Adah, C. A., Kaya, P. B., Inalegwu, J. E., Ajayi, S. A., Ukpoju-Ebony, O. M., Gabriel, O. J., & Adekalu, O. A. (2024). Assessment of ground water quality in flooded and non-flooded areas. International Journal of Environment and Pollution Research, 12(3), 52–62. https://doi.org/10.37745/ijepr.13/vol12n35262 Kanu, I. M., & Przezbórska-Skobiej, L. (2025). Socio-Economic Determinants of Climate-Smart Agriculture Adoption: A Novel Perspective from Agritourism Farmers in Nigeria. Sustainability, 17(12), 5521. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125521 Kuppuraj, R. M., Selvaraj, D., Govindaraj, S., Rangaswamy, M., Narayanasamy, J. R., & Kuppanagounder, K. (2012). Assessment of groundwater quality in the flood plains of upper Palar River, India. Chinese Journal of Geochemistry, 31, 15–23. Leeonis, A. N., Ahmed, M. F., Mokhtar, M. B., Halder, B., Lim, C. K., Majid, N. A., & Scholz, M. (2025). Importance of Geographic Information System Application to Reduce the Impact of Flood Disasters in Malaysia: A Meta-Analysis. Water, 17(2), 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020181 Mahdi, M. A., & Mahdi, A. A. (2025). The impact of economic and climate change factors on flooding in Borno State, Nigeria: Causes, consequences, and policy responses. Fane-Fane IIARD International Journal of Geography & Environmental Management International Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2, Special Issue), 221–234. https://fimjournal.com/index.php/fimj/article/view/243 Manfreda, S., Di Leo, M., & Sole, A. (2011). Detection of flood-prone areas using digital elevation models. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 16(10), 781–790. https://doi.org/10.1061/HE.1943-5584.0000435 Mosavi, A., Ozturk, P., & Chau, K.-w. (2018). Flood Prediction Using Machine Learning Models: Literature Review. Water, 10(11), 1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111536 Muthusamy, M., Rivas Casado, M., Butler, D., & Leinster, P. (2021). Understanding the effects of digital elevation model resolution in urban fluvial flood modelling. Journal of Hydrology, 596, 126088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126088 Narendra, B. H., Setiawan, O., Hasan, R. A., Siregar, C. A., Pratiwi, [initials]., Sari, N., Sukmana, A., Dharmawan, I. W. S., & Nandini, R. (2024). Flood susceptibility mapping based on watershed geomorphometric characteristics and land use/land cover on a small island. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management , 10(1), 301–320. National Emergency Management Agency. (2013). South-South lost N2.51 trn to floods in 2012 .https://www.nema.gov.ng/south-south-lost-n2-51trn-to-floods-in-2012-says- nema Nebeokike, U. C., Igwe, O., Egbueri, J. C., & Ifediegwu, S. I. (2020). Erodibility characteristics and slope stability analysis of geological units prone to erosion in Udi area, southeast Nigeria. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 6(2), 1061–1074. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808 020-00741-w Nigerian Meteorological Agency . (2023, November 4). Flooding losses in Nigeria reach US$4.6 billion, says NiMet. Vanguard News. Retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/11/4-6bn-lost-to-flooding-says-nimet Nwachukwu, S. U., & Orji, O. A. (2025). Assessment of water infiltration in the three (3) most vulnerable LGAs to flooding of Rivers State before and after flooding. International Journal of Agriculture and Earth Science , 11(8), 209-214 Odiana, S., Ugbodaga, F., & Okwuokei, N. G. (2024). Determining flood prone areas in Edo State using Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing. Journal of Energy Technology and Environment, 6(2), 123–134. ISSN 2682-583x. Odoh, B. I., Nwokeabia, C. N., Chukwuneke, J. C., & Ibezue, V. C. (2024). Topographical influence on groundwater recharge: A combined slope and hydrogeophysical study in Umuahia South, Nigeria. Research Journal of Pure Science and Technology, 7(4). https:// Ogden, F. L., Pradhan, N. R., Downer, C. W., & Zahner, J. A. (2011). Relative importance of impervious area, drainage density, width function, and subsurface storm drainage on flood runoff from an urbanized catchment. Water Resources Research, 47(12), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010550 Ogungbade, O., Ariyo, S. O., Alimi, S. A., Alepa, V. C., Aromoye, S. A., & Akinlabi, O. J. (2022). A combined GIS, remote sensing and geophysical methods for groundwater potential assessment of Ilora, Oyo central, Nigeria. Environmental Earth Sciences, 81(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10199-x Oladosu, S. O., Aizesogie, E. O., & Alademomi, A. S. (2025). Evaluation of critical flood conditioning factors for the generation of flood susceptibility map for Egor Local Government Area, Edo State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 29(6), 1879–1889 IIARD International Journal of Geography & Environmental Management Osei, J. D., Reed-Jones, Q., Twumasi, Y. A., & Ning, Z. H. (2025). A GIS-based flood hazard mapping in the Alsen St./Irma Lee Community Village in the Louisiana state of USA. Natural Hazards Research, 5(4), 778–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nhres.2025.03.006 Ouma, Y. O., & Tateishi, R. (2014). Urban flood vulnerability and risk mapping using integrated multi-parametric AHP and GIS: Methodological overview and case study assessment. Water, 6, 1515–1545. https://doi.org/10.3390/w6061515 Ponting, J., Kelly, T. J., Verhoef, A., Watts, M. J., & Sizmur, T. (2021). The impact of increased flooding occurrence on the mobility of potentially toxic elements in floodplain soil: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 754, 142040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142040 Rocha, J., Duarte, A., Fabres, S., Quintela, A., & Serpa, D. (2023). Influence of DEM Resolution on the Hydrological Responses of a Terraced Catchment: An Exploratory Modelling Approach. Remote Sensing, 15(1), 169. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15010169 Rowland, E. D., & Okpobiri, O. (2021). Floodplain mapping and risks assessment of the Orashi River using remote sensing and GIS in the Niger Delta region, Nigeria. Journal of Geographical Research, 4(2), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v4i2.3014 Rui, Y., Fu, D., Do Minh, H., Radhakrishnan, M., Zevenbergen, C., & Pathirana, A. (2018). Urban Surface Water Quality, Flood Water Quality and Human Health Impacts in Chinese Cities. What Do We Know? Water, 10(3), 240. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10030240 Sam, F. B. M. (2025). Geospatial analysis of flood vulnerability using GIS-based multi-criteria decision—analysis for Ahoada East and West Local Government Areas of Rivers State, Nigeria. Journal of Progress in Engineering and Physical Science, 4(4), 8-23. https://www.pioneerpublisher.com/jpeps Sangwai, A. M., & Nagne, A. D. (2025). GIS-based flood risk assessment using DEM-derived hydrological indices with mitigation measures. International Journal on Science and Technology , 16(4). https://doi.org/10.71097/IJSAT.v16.i4.9999 Sanyal, J., & Lu, X. X. (2004). Application of remote sensing in flood management with special reference to monsoon Asia: A review. Natural Hazards, 33(2), 283–301. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000037035.65105.95 Selvam, R. A., & Antony Jebamalai, A. R. (2023). Application of the analytical hierarchy process for flood susceptibility mapping using GIS techniques in Thamirabarani River Basin, Srivaikundam region, Southern India. Natural Hazards, 118(2), 1065–1083. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-06655-8 Shafii, N. Z., Saudi, A. S. M., Pang, J. C., Abu, I. F., Sapawe, N., Kamarudin, M. K. A., & Mohamad, M. H. N. (2023). Association of Flood Risk Patterns with Waterborne Bacterial Diseases in Malaysia. Water, 15(11), 2121. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15112121 Tarboton, D. G., Bras, R. L., & Rodriguez-Iturbe, I. (1992). A physical basis for drainage density. Geomorphology, 5, 55–76 Tetteh, A. T., Kahuri, S., Yevugah, L. L., Moomen, A.-W., Kwakwa, P. A., & Yakubu, I. (2026). A multi-criteria approach to fluvial flood vulnerability assessment: A case study of Lower Manya Krobo Municipality. Water Cycle, 7, 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watcyc.2025.06.001 Tousan, Y. (2024). Advancing early warning systems: Impact of remote sensing and GIS on flood management. Journal of Remote Sensing and GIS, 13, 353 Ulaeto, N. W. and Ugwoeri, A. (2023). Risk evaluation of threats to government administrative facilities in South-South, Nigeria. The Professional Builder, 8(1), 72- 108 IIARD International Journal of Geography & Environmental Management United Nations Development Programme. (2023). Nigeria flood impact, recovery and mitigation assessment report 2022–2023. https://www.undp.org/nigeria/publications/nigeria-flood- impact-recovery-and-mitigation-assessment-report-2022-2023 Utsev, J. T., Nnaji, C. C., & Nnennaya, M. C. (2015). Effect of flood on water resources in North- Central Nigeria. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 12(2), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.3233/AJW-2015-12_2_07 World Economic Forum. (2022). Nigeria’s worst floods in a decade have displaced over a million people. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2022/10/nigeria-flood-rain-climate/ Zhao, G., Pang, B., Xu, Z., Peng, D., & Xu, L. (2019). Assessment of urban flood susceptibility using semi-supervised machine learning model. Science of the Total Environment, 659, 940–949 Zzaman RU, Nowreen S, Billah M, Islam AS (2021) Flood hazard mapping of Sangu River basin in Bangladesh using multi-criteria analysis of hydro geomorphological factors. J Flood Risk Manag 14:e12715. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1111/ JFR3. 12715
More Articles from IIARD INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Rural Migration and Industrial Development in Bayelsa State
Author: Adedoyin Oluwatoyin Omidiji, Imbazi Woyengitari PhD
Solid Waste Disposal and Management in Oyo Township
Author: Oyedemi Oyelekan Adeyemo
Mapping Flood-Exposed Road Segments from Freely Available Satellite Imagery During The 2022 Flood Season
Author: Oladimeji Basit Alaka,, Olayemi Bolaji, Ridwan Tiamiyu
Rerouting Behavior and Travel-Time Penalties Under Flood- Induced Road Closures
Author: Ridwan Tiamiyu,, Oladimeji Basit Alaka, Oluwabusola Ajayi
Loading and Unloading Activity at Informal Roadside Motor Parks and Its Effect on Arterial Traffic Flow
Author: Olayemi Bolaji,, Oluwabusola Ajayi